LIST OF REFERENCES FOR ANIMAL ASSISTED LEARNING MODEL
****Note beacuse of the formatting of this blog, the references may not be in full APA format. Please make sure you read the citation completely to get all of the info.
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Thursday, April 23, 2009
Animal Assisted Learning Model
Introduction
While we know that there is not one effective instruction strategy that works all the time with every student, however we can combine critical components of effective reading programs with the results of this project into one model. The focus of this model is on the motivation of the reader rather than the skill itself. The premise being if one can instill a positive attitude about something at a young age, then the student will be more likely to maintain that same attitude later in life (McKenna, 2001). In the context of literacy, if a student’s primary experiences with literacy are positive, they will carry that attitude on through the process and be more likely to succeed and continue reading throughout their life. There is a great deal of research reporting what are the best strategies and practices in education. However, there are several strategies that continue to lead to success in literacy: multiple exposures to written text (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998), frequent opportunities that foster motivation to read for a variety of purposes (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998), promoting independent reading outside the school in the home and with other community programs that share in this goal (Burns et al., 1999), making personal connections with the text, (Halliday, 1994), and clear integration of literacy and content (Pressley et al., 1998). All of these strategies have been reviewed in previous chapters.
The program in this study used animals as a way to motivate children to read. The use of the animal not only acted as a motivator but also helped to create a physical connection to the text which was one of the effective strategies mentioned earlier. We know that the animals in this instance were a powerful tool in the success of the program but in what other areas could the animal play a role. Creating a model offers structure and frame for a construct such as learning. The animal assisted learning model is an attempt to create a framework from which interactive experiences could be created. Just as a positive experience shapes our attitude and perception for life so can a negative one. Also taken into consideration for this model is flexibility. The hope is that the model can transcend out of education and into other areas where animal interaction can be of benefit such as therapeutic interventions. It is also designed to be flexible within different situations without sacrificing the quality of the experience.
The model is broken down into five components: introduction, interaction, integration, interaction and demonstration.
Each component integrates the effective strategies mentioned above: motivation, access, integration of text, reading aloud and creating joy and enthusiasm through demonstration and recognition. It is built along a continuum in that each component builds upon the previous and affects the following. Any phase can be revisited sliding up and down the continuum depending on the needs of the audience. The theoretical framework upon which this model is developed is connected cyclically. Each theory supports a crucial component of the model.
Introduction Phase
The introduction phase incorporates two important principles: accessing A Priori or prior knowledge (Kujawa & Huske, 1995), and sparking curiosity (Dewey, 1963). When teachers connect new information and concepts to A Priori knowledge, they activate the student’s interest and spark their curiosity therefore instilling a sense of purpose to the instruction (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). Dewey (1963) postulated that one could inspire a sense of curiosity if the teachings were linked cumulatively to one another. According to Beyer (1991) students learn best when the content is linked to relevant prior knowledge. Prior knowledge acts as a filter or window through which we view and process new information (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). A person’s past experience determines the way they view and perceive the knowledge that is being presented to them while at the same time the current experience shapes the way they will perceive new ones. (Anderson in Ruddell & Ruddell, eds., 1994). All of those preexisting attitudes, beliefs, experiences and knowledge effects how we learn and effects our motivation and desire to learn (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). A study by Bransford and McCarrell (1974) tried to explain how prior knowledge or schema effected comprehension. Through analysis of the subjects’ interpretation of the responses, they were able to determine that making a connection to the text was crucial for comprehension. The animal is used as the means to connect to the text. Then making physical contact with nature can deepen the connection (Dewey, 1938). Another important consideration for creating an effective instructional model is to take into account learning styles. In 1983, Gardener, one of the leaders in the area of learning proposed that there are seven different types of learners or intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical, spatial, bodily or kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. As learners, Gardener (1999) says that we employ more than one of the seven but tend to dominate towards one. As a result of more speculation and research regarding biophilia (Kellert & Wilson, 1993), Gardener proposed an eighth intelligence in 1999, the Naturalistic Intelligence. This intelligence involves the ability to understand and work effectively in the natural world. Gardner’s work has brought even more attention to the importance of a physical connection to the natural world and how effective this initial contact can be and can connect with children who otherwise would not.
The first phase is also about generating a personal interest through that connection. Studies have shown a high correlation between personal interest and reading comprehension (Schiefele, 1992). If the students have a personal interest or can make a personal connection to the text, they are more likely to recall the information. Guthrie and Knowles (2001) also contend tat one’s attitude toward a particular object or subject affects their ability to connect with the material; “Attitudes are affective responses that accompany a behavior of reading initiated by a motivational state” (p.20). McKenna, Kear and Ellsworth (1995) discovered that a child’s positive attitude toward reading decreased as they progressed through elementary school in a survey of 18,000 students. This attitude was highly related to ability. Low achievers had a more negative attitude as they progressed to the sixth grade. As motivation declines, without promotional activities, children are less likely to read. (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001)
Interaction Phase
The two interaction components of this model are based upon a child’s attraction to nature and the ability to use this attraction and curiosity to motivate students (Guthrie, 1983). The first interaction is critical to the model. It is the step that generates the enthusiasm and motivation. It is the beginning of the experience for that student, the hook so to speak. It is the physical contact with the animal that enhances a human’s attraction to nature and creates an atmosphere where children can learn. The fourth phase, which is a second interaction, is meant to reinforce the motivation and knowledge gained. It is a bridge between the introduction and the demonstration.
The interaction phase exploits our natural attraction to living things. Biophilia (Wilson, 1984) is the basis for the use of the animals as motivators and the bridge between the first and second phase of the model. Gardener (1999) introduced the eighth addition to his multiple intelligences list. The “Naturalistic Intelligence” is displayed by children who identify with the laws of nature and classification. The use of live animals would help to reach this pocket of children who would otherwise not make that crucial connection to the lesson. By playing to their attraction to nature, the teacher can increase their motivation to participate actively in the lesson.
The interaction phase should be social in nature. Maslow (1954) published “Motivation and Personality,” which introduced his theory about how people satisfy their various needs. Based on his observations as a humanistic psychologist, he found a general pattern of needs that people would recognize and try to satisfy in generally the same sequence. One of the basic needs listed towards the bottom of his hierarchy is the need for social interaction and belongingness (Maslow, 1954). This social need can be obtained through interaction with animals. A review of the Biophilia Hypothesis by Peter Kahn (1997) suggests the attraction may have something to do with recognition of the increased likelihood of finding food, safety, and security in nature (Kahn, 1997). In Gerald Lamb’s 1972 study of a group of disabled children and a field trip to the zoo, it was concluded that the interaction with the animals increased language skills, social interaction and confidence. This study also supports the need for social interaction as a positive addition to an effective learning model.
An additional benefit to the use of animals is opportunity for lessons in stewardship. In 1996 Kellert identified nine values placed on life. The fifth and ninth value reference a human’s emotional and moral response to nature. Children of school age, six and up, are ready and open to the learning experience. Kellert (1996) determined that between the ages of six and nine, children were more aware of animals as having interests and feelings and they might suffer pain and distress. The nine to twelve year old age group demonstrated the highest increase in their knowledge of their factual understanding as well as a moralistic and conservationists view of the natural world. The results of this study have a direct impact on the appropriate use of animals in the classroom which should be discussed during the first interaction to ensure a quality and safe experience for both the animal and student. The research of Kellert and Wilson (1993) concluded that animals brought into a human context are powerful reinforcements of human attention and behavior. When the child is given the opportunity to interact with the animal as well as observe it, there are positive changes to behavior; human speech, and nonverbal expression of emotion.
Pets play a vital role in the development of children. (Robin et al.,1983) as they help to alleviate stress which is beneficial in both an education and therapeutic setting. Because children learn primarily through direct contact with their environment, interaction with an animal can provide sensory input that cannot be duplicated by another source (Blue, 1986). According to the research of Robin et al, pet animals can be very important to youth and can play a special role in the lives of disturbed and delinquent youth. The pet met their need for acceptance and provided unconditional love, as well as emotional support. Some pets even acted as protectors of children in abusive homes and acted as a substitute for family in cases where the child was removed from the home. The animal helps to create a safe and relaxed atmosphere which makes them more receptive to learning (Thornton, 2000). Merely being in the presence of an animal can lead to a decrease in blood pressure (Katcher, Friedmann, Beck, & Lynch, 1983). Thornton (2000) found that teachers reported their students felt less embarrassed and less tense while reading aloud in the presence of a dog. They felt as though they were reading aloud to someone who would not judge them if they made a mistake and were comfortable to explore their skill as a reader. Interacting with an animal generates physiological responses in our body. Cain & Cain (1991) state two characteristics of the optimal state of mind for meaningful learning: a relaxed nervous system and sense of safety and security and student self-motivation, which is critical to the expansion of knowledge. In Rud and Beck’s 1996 study, teachers reported that animals in their classroom added to the overall psychological wellbeing of the students. They noted a decrease in classroom stress and an increase in class participation.
The enhanced program design studied in this project used horses specifically for the motivation of students to read. Little research on the use of horses in educational studies has been conducted but as therapeutic riding as an educational intervention becomes more widely accepted, more research will surface. One study of a Therapeutic Equestrian program found that horses used as educational tools can be classroom motivators and themes for academic activities in small appropriate groups. Results of their study included significant physical benefits, the emergence of communication from a withdrawn non-verbal student, and increased confidence levels in the students (Bieber, 1983). Even though this is not a realistic model for all schools, it is a clear example of using an animal as not only a motivator in the classroom but also a treatment modality for the physical issues associated with disabilities in special education classrooms.
Studying pets fosters a child’s natural sense of curiosity about their environment (Blue, 1986). If one takes a broad view of classroom curriculum in any subject especially at younger grade levels, animals are often the subject or the theme. This seems to help make a connection with the children as well as provide a motivator for learning the subject matter. There is also a high frequency of animals used as the theme for computer based interactive lessons. Dewey (1938) discusses this phenomenon of curiosity related to learning. He surmised that if you can peak this curiosity by connecting children with nature than they will be more apt to learn and retain what they are taught.
Integration Phase
The third component of the Animal Assisted Learning model is Integration. The concept of integrating the subject matter employs two important factors: connecting the material creating in a balanced or holistic approach, and building upon prior knowledge by constructing new knowledge. Research in education has come to one great understanding; there is no one right way to teach (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds 1999). Creating a model that pulls from multiple strategies sometimes referred to as balanced instruction, is more successful at engaging students (Pressley, et al, 1998). Many researchers have observed that student engagement can be greater and learning heightened when reading and writing are integrated with content-area instruction (e.g., Applebee, 1996; Barth & Mitchell, 1992). A study by Pressley, et al (1998) focusing on the nature of effective first grade literacy instruction, found the most consistent factor for effective classrooms was they all had a greater intent to connect reading and writing skills and content areas. By combining the attention capturing value of an animal with regular classroom instruction, the students will be more likely to be engaged in the learning process. An example would be to pair the subject matter of that animal such as a dog with reading content that included a dog as a character or information about the dog. The specie is not what is important but rather the connections made across the curriculum and that the children are engaged in the lessons.
Monzo & Rueda (2001) describe engagement with academic tasks as the observable manifestation of achievement motivation, identified by students' on-task behavior, lack of disruptions during lessons, or completion of activities. More recently, cognitive-oriented researchers argue that an engaged reader is one who is motivated, knowledgeable, strategic, and socially interactive (Gambrell, 1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). This requires that the learner be actively thinking about the reading task. This model takes on a constructivist perspective of engagement. From this approach, the engagement is a process that the active learner uses to connect personal prior knowledge and previous experiences to new ideas in order to construct new knowledge and build upon what they already know (McCombs, 1996).
Motivation is not a static concept (Guthrie & Anderson, 1994). The purpose this phase is to continue the motivation created during the first interaction and carry the momentum while continuing to build upon it until the end. Guthrie and Knowles (2001) identify four aspects of motivation related to reading: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, interest and attitude. Specifically, intrinsic motivation refers to the students desire to be engaged in reading for its own sake rather than for a reward. Extrinsic motivation refers to the external rewards as goals for reading such as grades (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001). In general, students display both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1994). Students who display traits for intrinsic motivation are more likely to achieve success in reading because of their curiosity in learning (Wigfield, Eccles & Rodriguez, 1998 and Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). So this implies two important things: we must create a situation that fosters intrinsic motivation, and we must provide and atmosphere that fosters a positive attitude toward reading. This model reinforces these two concepts in each phase continuing to build motivation from one experience to the next through generating personal interest and personal connection through the live animal contact (Schiefele, 1992) and sparking curiosity (Dewey, 1938) which manifests itself motivation and a positive attitude which lead to success (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001).
Ross (1988) confirmed these results in a meta-analysis of literature. He describes the interaction as a “motivating context for text-based learning” (p. 411). He found that hands-on science activities aroused attention and promoted active learning (Guthrie & Wigfiled, 2000, p.411). Guthrie et al. (1998) found that reading instruction when embedded within hands-on science curriculum increased reading comprehension, strategy use, and problem solving in third and fifth graders and labeled it as intrinsically motivating. In 1992 Romance and Vitale studied an integrated curriculum that combined reading and hands-on activities in science. In a quasi-experimental comparison, students in the integrated curriculum scored higher on measures of reading achievement and science knowledge than did students pursuing a traditional form of instruction. Anderson (1998) attempted to explain this phenomenon. He reasoned that hands-on science activities would motivate students to read and, in turn, increase their conceptual learning from text. These findings demonstrated that students who read texts in association with hands-on activities had higher comprehension and increases in conceptual knowledge than did students who read the same texts without the intrinsically motivating context. In addition to Anderson’s work, Guthrie et al conducted a yearlong intervention study and showed that reading engagement initially learned with intrinsically motivating activities in one knowledge domain could be transferred to a new knowledge domain (Guthrie, Anderson, Alao, & Rinehart, 1999).
It is the interest of the animal assisted learning model that children engage in reading because they want to, because of a hunger for imagination and curiosity sparked by their participation in the program. Most researchers and educators would agree that motivation "is a very important, if not the most important factor in language learning" (Van Lier, 1998) without which even 'gifted' individuals cannot accomplish long-term goals, regardless of the curricula or instructor
Interaction Phase II
This model strives to create a positive pattern and attitude that will continue throughout the child’s life whether it be for reading or the instilling of an empathetic attitude toward nature. The second interaction phase is to reinforce the motivation created in the beginning and to reinforce the connection to the curriculum. It helps to support intrinsic motivation in the child. The importance of real world interaction which was discussed earlier needs to continue long after the experience is over. There must be support inside and outside of school in order for this to occur (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). This means promotion of reading at home and social interaction in the form of discussions of the book in and out of class. In a section of a paper written by John Guthrie found in the Handbook of Reading Research (Kamil, et al, 2000), he details how real life situations used in the classroom can influence intrinsic motivation. The Interaction 1, Interaction 2 and Demonstration portion of the model are deeply rooted in this concept. It refers to learners’ sensory and personal experiences.
“The main role of real-world interaction is to evoke intrinsically motivated behaviors. Students are alert, attentive, and excited in the presence of a real world object such as a live reptile, …... They enjoy looking, asking questions, and discussing what they see” (Guthrie, 2000, p. 403).
Guthrie (2000) connects the work of researchers related to hands on science learning to the positive effects of live animal interaction and the generation of life long interest. Providing a second chance for the students to interact with the animal serves to reinforce that motivation and to spark curiosity which empowers the learner to seek more information after the experience has ended. Combining the intrinsic motivation with support outside of the classroom ensures a greater likelihood for success.
Demonstration Phase
In order to bring the experience full circle, it is important to provide opportunity to students to demonstrate the knowledge they have gained (Downing, 2000). The purpose is not to highlight one child over another; it is a chance to recognize that everyone has achieved something. In psychology it might be called closure or termination (Yalom, 1995). Yalom (1995) says that it is more than just an end but an integral part of the process. Bringing a formal end to one stage helps to be more accepting of new experiences and increases their self confidence (Driscoll, 1994). The celebration and recognition of achievement can act as an external motivator but the terminating experience can be intrinsically motivating in that it inspires one to go forth and seek out new knowledge (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001).
Summary
Based on the findings of this thesis and a review or successful educational programs, it was determined that the conclusions could be merged into one theoretical model. This model can offer consistency in structure of interactions between humans and animals. The Animal Assisted Learning model uses structured interaction with an animal to motivate children by:
• Capturing attention by accessing prior knowledge- Introduction
• Creating a personal connection to the text- Interaction
• Integrating the subject of the text into all areas of classroom study to build upon prior knowledge- Integration
• Reinforcing new knowledge and personal connection- Interaction
• Demonstrating new knowledge and recognizing achievement- Demonstration
The very nature of the model is flexible and is designed to accommodate various situations so that it can be adapted with out compromising the outcome. Whether or not the animal is part of the internal or external motivator is of no consequence. Each child is motivated by something different and need varying combinations of internal and external motivation to achieve success. What is important is to be purposeful and complete in each stage of the model according to the needs of the individual student. The connection between humans and animals is constantly evolving and changing. As in nature, it is in constant motion. A model designed to structure this interaction has to follow the same path. The same could be said for education in general, everyone learns differently at different times. What works one moment may not work the next. But we can try to slowly affect one child at a time to help learn and see that we are all connected and in motion. In the words of Leo Tolstoy: “One of the first conditions of happiness is that the link between man and nature not be broken”.
While we know that there is not one effective instruction strategy that works all the time with every student, however we can combine critical components of effective reading programs with the results of this project into one model. The focus of this model is on the motivation of the reader rather than the skill itself. The premise being if one can instill a positive attitude about something at a young age, then the student will be more likely to maintain that same attitude later in life (McKenna, 2001). In the context of literacy, if a student’s primary experiences with literacy are positive, they will carry that attitude on through the process and be more likely to succeed and continue reading throughout their life. There is a great deal of research reporting what are the best strategies and practices in education. However, there are several strategies that continue to lead to success in literacy: multiple exposures to written text (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998), frequent opportunities that foster motivation to read for a variety of purposes (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998), promoting independent reading outside the school in the home and with other community programs that share in this goal (Burns et al., 1999), making personal connections with the text, (Halliday, 1994), and clear integration of literacy and content (Pressley et al., 1998). All of these strategies have been reviewed in previous chapters.
The program in this study used animals as a way to motivate children to read. The use of the animal not only acted as a motivator but also helped to create a physical connection to the text which was one of the effective strategies mentioned earlier. We know that the animals in this instance were a powerful tool in the success of the program but in what other areas could the animal play a role. Creating a model offers structure and frame for a construct such as learning. The animal assisted learning model is an attempt to create a framework from which interactive experiences could be created. Just as a positive experience shapes our attitude and perception for life so can a negative one. Also taken into consideration for this model is flexibility. The hope is that the model can transcend out of education and into other areas where animal interaction can be of benefit such as therapeutic interventions. It is also designed to be flexible within different situations without sacrificing the quality of the experience.
The model is broken down into five components: introduction, interaction, integration, interaction and demonstration.
Each component integrates the effective strategies mentioned above: motivation, access, integration of text, reading aloud and creating joy and enthusiasm through demonstration and recognition. It is built along a continuum in that each component builds upon the previous and affects the following. Any phase can be revisited sliding up and down the continuum depending on the needs of the audience. The theoretical framework upon which this model is developed is connected cyclically. Each theory supports a crucial component of the model.
Introduction Phase
The introduction phase incorporates two important principles: accessing A Priori or prior knowledge (Kujawa & Huske, 1995), and sparking curiosity (Dewey, 1963). When teachers connect new information and concepts to A Priori knowledge, they activate the student’s interest and spark their curiosity therefore instilling a sense of purpose to the instruction (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). Dewey (1963) postulated that one could inspire a sense of curiosity if the teachings were linked cumulatively to one another. According to Beyer (1991) students learn best when the content is linked to relevant prior knowledge. Prior knowledge acts as a filter or window through which we view and process new information (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). A person’s past experience determines the way they view and perceive the knowledge that is being presented to them while at the same time the current experience shapes the way they will perceive new ones. (Anderson in Ruddell & Ruddell, eds., 1994). All of those preexisting attitudes, beliefs, experiences and knowledge effects how we learn and effects our motivation and desire to learn (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). A study by Bransford and McCarrell (1974) tried to explain how prior knowledge or schema effected comprehension. Through analysis of the subjects’ interpretation of the responses, they were able to determine that making a connection to the text was crucial for comprehension. The animal is used as the means to connect to the text. Then making physical contact with nature can deepen the connection (Dewey, 1938). Another important consideration for creating an effective instructional model is to take into account learning styles. In 1983, Gardener, one of the leaders in the area of learning proposed that there are seven different types of learners or intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical, spatial, bodily or kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. As learners, Gardener (1999) says that we employ more than one of the seven but tend to dominate towards one. As a result of more speculation and research regarding biophilia (Kellert & Wilson, 1993), Gardener proposed an eighth intelligence in 1999, the Naturalistic Intelligence. This intelligence involves the ability to understand and work effectively in the natural world. Gardner’s work has brought even more attention to the importance of a physical connection to the natural world and how effective this initial contact can be and can connect with children who otherwise would not.
The first phase is also about generating a personal interest through that connection. Studies have shown a high correlation between personal interest and reading comprehension (Schiefele, 1992). If the students have a personal interest or can make a personal connection to the text, they are more likely to recall the information. Guthrie and Knowles (2001) also contend tat one’s attitude toward a particular object or subject affects their ability to connect with the material; “Attitudes are affective responses that accompany a behavior of reading initiated by a motivational state” (p.20). McKenna, Kear and Ellsworth (1995) discovered that a child’s positive attitude toward reading decreased as they progressed through elementary school in a survey of 18,000 students. This attitude was highly related to ability. Low achievers had a more negative attitude as they progressed to the sixth grade. As motivation declines, without promotional activities, children are less likely to read. (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001)
Interaction Phase
The two interaction components of this model are based upon a child’s attraction to nature and the ability to use this attraction and curiosity to motivate students (Guthrie, 1983). The first interaction is critical to the model. It is the step that generates the enthusiasm and motivation. It is the beginning of the experience for that student, the hook so to speak. It is the physical contact with the animal that enhances a human’s attraction to nature and creates an atmosphere where children can learn. The fourth phase, which is a second interaction, is meant to reinforce the motivation and knowledge gained. It is a bridge between the introduction and the demonstration.
The interaction phase exploits our natural attraction to living things. Biophilia (Wilson, 1984) is the basis for the use of the animals as motivators and the bridge between the first and second phase of the model. Gardener (1999) introduced the eighth addition to his multiple intelligences list. The “Naturalistic Intelligence” is displayed by children who identify with the laws of nature and classification. The use of live animals would help to reach this pocket of children who would otherwise not make that crucial connection to the lesson. By playing to their attraction to nature, the teacher can increase their motivation to participate actively in the lesson.
The interaction phase should be social in nature. Maslow (1954) published “Motivation and Personality,” which introduced his theory about how people satisfy their various needs. Based on his observations as a humanistic psychologist, he found a general pattern of needs that people would recognize and try to satisfy in generally the same sequence. One of the basic needs listed towards the bottom of his hierarchy is the need for social interaction and belongingness (Maslow, 1954). This social need can be obtained through interaction with animals. A review of the Biophilia Hypothesis by Peter Kahn (1997) suggests the attraction may have something to do with recognition of the increased likelihood of finding food, safety, and security in nature (Kahn, 1997). In Gerald Lamb’s 1972 study of a group of disabled children and a field trip to the zoo, it was concluded that the interaction with the animals increased language skills, social interaction and confidence. This study also supports the need for social interaction as a positive addition to an effective learning model.
An additional benefit to the use of animals is opportunity for lessons in stewardship. In 1996 Kellert identified nine values placed on life. The fifth and ninth value reference a human’s emotional and moral response to nature. Children of school age, six and up, are ready and open to the learning experience. Kellert (1996) determined that between the ages of six and nine, children were more aware of animals as having interests and feelings and they might suffer pain and distress. The nine to twelve year old age group demonstrated the highest increase in their knowledge of their factual understanding as well as a moralistic and conservationists view of the natural world. The results of this study have a direct impact on the appropriate use of animals in the classroom which should be discussed during the first interaction to ensure a quality and safe experience for both the animal and student. The research of Kellert and Wilson (1993) concluded that animals brought into a human context are powerful reinforcements of human attention and behavior. When the child is given the opportunity to interact with the animal as well as observe it, there are positive changes to behavior; human speech, and nonverbal expression of emotion.
Pets play a vital role in the development of children. (Robin et al.,1983) as they help to alleviate stress which is beneficial in both an education and therapeutic setting. Because children learn primarily through direct contact with their environment, interaction with an animal can provide sensory input that cannot be duplicated by another source (Blue, 1986). According to the research of Robin et al, pet animals can be very important to youth and can play a special role in the lives of disturbed and delinquent youth. The pet met their need for acceptance and provided unconditional love, as well as emotional support. Some pets even acted as protectors of children in abusive homes and acted as a substitute for family in cases where the child was removed from the home. The animal helps to create a safe and relaxed atmosphere which makes them more receptive to learning (Thornton, 2000). Merely being in the presence of an animal can lead to a decrease in blood pressure (Katcher, Friedmann, Beck, & Lynch, 1983). Thornton (2000) found that teachers reported their students felt less embarrassed and less tense while reading aloud in the presence of a dog. They felt as though they were reading aloud to someone who would not judge them if they made a mistake and were comfortable to explore their skill as a reader. Interacting with an animal generates physiological responses in our body. Cain & Cain (1991) state two characteristics of the optimal state of mind for meaningful learning: a relaxed nervous system and sense of safety and security and student self-motivation, which is critical to the expansion of knowledge. In Rud and Beck’s 1996 study, teachers reported that animals in their classroom added to the overall psychological wellbeing of the students. They noted a decrease in classroom stress and an increase in class participation.
The enhanced program design studied in this project used horses specifically for the motivation of students to read. Little research on the use of horses in educational studies has been conducted but as therapeutic riding as an educational intervention becomes more widely accepted, more research will surface. One study of a Therapeutic Equestrian program found that horses used as educational tools can be classroom motivators and themes for academic activities in small appropriate groups. Results of their study included significant physical benefits, the emergence of communication from a withdrawn non-verbal student, and increased confidence levels in the students (Bieber, 1983). Even though this is not a realistic model for all schools, it is a clear example of using an animal as not only a motivator in the classroom but also a treatment modality for the physical issues associated with disabilities in special education classrooms.
Studying pets fosters a child’s natural sense of curiosity about their environment (Blue, 1986). If one takes a broad view of classroom curriculum in any subject especially at younger grade levels, animals are often the subject or the theme. This seems to help make a connection with the children as well as provide a motivator for learning the subject matter. There is also a high frequency of animals used as the theme for computer based interactive lessons. Dewey (1938) discusses this phenomenon of curiosity related to learning. He surmised that if you can peak this curiosity by connecting children with nature than they will be more apt to learn and retain what they are taught.
Integration Phase
The third component of the Animal Assisted Learning model is Integration. The concept of integrating the subject matter employs two important factors: connecting the material creating in a balanced or holistic approach, and building upon prior knowledge by constructing new knowledge. Research in education has come to one great understanding; there is no one right way to teach (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds 1999). Creating a model that pulls from multiple strategies sometimes referred to as balanced instruction, is more successful at engaging students (Pressley, et al, 1998). Many researchers have observed that student engagement can be greater and learning heightened when reading and writing are integrated with content-area instruction (e.g., Applebee, 1996; Barth & Mitchell, 1992). A study by Pressley, et al (1998) focusing on the nature of effective first grade literacy instruction, found the most consistent factor for effective classrooms was they all had a greater intent to connect reading and writing skills and content areas. By combining the attention capturing value of an animal with regular classroom instruction, the students will be more likely to be engaged in the learning process. An example would be to pair the subject matter of that animal such as a dog with reading content that included a dog as a character or information about the dog. The specie is not what is important but rather the connections made across the curriculum and that the children are engaged in the lessons.
Monzo & Rueda (2001) describe engagement with academic tasks as the observable manifestation of achievement motivation, identified by students' on-task behavior, lack of disruptions during lessons, or completion of activities. More recently, cognitive-oriented researchers argue that an engaged reader is one who is motivated, knowledgeable, strategic, and socially interactive (Gambrell, 1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). This requires that the learner be actively thinking about the reading task. This model takes on a constructivist perspective of engagement. From this approach, the engagement is a process that the active learner uses to connect personal prior knowledge and previous experiences to new ideas in order to construct new knowledge and build upon what they already know (McCombs, 1996).
Motivation is not a static concept (Guthrie & Anderson, 1994). The purpose this phase is to continue the motivation created during the first interaction and carry the momentum while continuing to build upon it until the end. Guthrie and Knowles (2001) identify four aspects of motivation related to reading: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, interest and attitude. Specifically, intrinsic motivation refers to the students desire to be engaged in reading for its own sake rather than for a reward. Extrinsic motivation refers to the external rewards as goals for reading such as grades (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001). In general, students display both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1994). Students who display traits for intrinsic motivation are more likely to achieve success in reading because of their curiosity in learning (Wigfield, Eccles & Rodriguez, 1998 and Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). So this implies two important things: we must create a situation that fosters intrinsic motivation, and we must provide and atmosphere that fosters a positive attitude toward reading. This model reinforces these two concepts in each phase continuing to build motivation from one experience to the next through generating personal interest and personal connection through the live animal contact (Schiefele, 1992) and sparking curiosity (Dewey, 1938) which manifests itself motivation and a positive attitude which lead to success (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001).
Ross (1988) confirmed these results in a meta-analysis of literature. He describes the interaction as a “motivating context for text-based learning” (p. 411). He found that hands-on science activities aroused attention and promoted active learning (Guthrie & Wigfiled, 2000, p.411). Guthrie et al. (1998) found that reading instruction when embedded within hands-on science curriculum increased reading comprehension, strategy use, and problem solving in third and fifth graders and labeled it as intrinsically motivating. In 1992 Romance and Vitale studied an integrated curriculum that combined reading and hands-on activities in science. In a quasi-experimental comparison, students in the integrated curriculum scored higher on measures of reading achievement and science knowledge than did students pursuing a traditional form of instruction. Anderson (1998) attempted to explain this phenomenon. He reasoned that hands-on science activities would motivate students to read and, in turn, increase their conceptual learning from text. These findings demonstrated that students who read texts in association with hands-on activities had higher comprehension and increases in conceptual knowledge than did students who read the same texts without the intrinsically motivating context. In addition to Anderson’s work, Guthrie et al conducted a yearlong intervention study and showed that reading engagement initially learned with intrinsically motivating activities in one knowledge domain could be transferred to a new knowledge domain (Guthrie, Anderson, Alao, & Rinehart, 1999).
It is the interest of the animal assisted learning model that children engage in reading because they want to, because of a hunger for imagination and curiosity sparked by their participation in the program. Most researchers and educators would agree that motivation "is a very important, if not the most important factor in language learning" (Van Lier, 1998) without which even 'gifted' individuals cannot accomplish long-term goals, regardless of the curricula or instructor
Interaction Phase II
This model strives to create a positive pattern and attitude that will continue throughout the child’s life whether it be for reading or the instilling of an empathetic attitude toward nature. The second interaction phase is to reinforce the motivation created in the beginning and to reinforce the connection to the curriculum. It helps to support intrinsic motivation in the child. The importance of real world interaction which was discussed earlier needs to continue long after the experience is over. There must be support inside and outside of school in order for this to occur (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). This means promotion of reading at home and social interaction in the form of discussions of the book in and out of class. In a section of a paper written by John Guthrie found in the Handbook of Reading Research (Kamil, et al, 2000), he details how real life situations used in the classroom can influence intrinsic motivation. The Interaction 1, Interaction 2 and Demonstration portion of the model are deeply rooted in this concept. It refers to learners’ sensory and personal experiences.
“The main role of real-world interaction is to evoke intrinsically motivated behaviors. Students are alert, attentive, and excited in the presence of a real world object such as a live reptile, …... They enjoy looking, asking questions, and discussing what they see” (Guthrie, 2000, p. 403).
Guthrie (2000) connects the work of researchers related to hands on science learning to the positive effects of live animal interaction and the generation of life long interest. Providing a second chance for the students to interact with the animal serves to reinforce that motivation and to spark curiosity which empowers the learner to seek more information after the experience has ended. Combining the intrinsic motivation with support outside of the classroom ensures a greater likelihood for success.
Demonstration Phase
In order to bring the experience full circle, it is important to provide opportunity to students to demonstrate the knowledge they have gained (Downing, 2000). The purpose is not to highlight one child over another; it is a chance to recognize that everyone has achieved something. In psychology it might be called closure or termination (Yalom, 1995). Yalom (1995) says that it is more than just an end but an integral part of the process. Bringing a formal end to one stage helps to be more accepting of new experiences and increases their self confidence (Driscoll, 1994). The celebration and recognition of achievement can act as an external motivator but the terminating experience can be intrinsically motivating in that it inspires one to go forth and seek out new knowledge (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001).
Summary
Based on the findings of this thesis and a review or successful educational programs, it was determined that the conclusions could be merged into one theoretical model. This model can offer consistency in structure of interactions between humans and animals. The Animal Assisted Learning model uses structured interaction with an animal to motivate children by:
• Capturing attention by accessing prior knowledge- Introduction
• Creating a personal connection to the text- Interaction
• Integrating the subject of the text into all areas of classroom study to build upon prior knowledge- Integration
• Reinforcing new knowledge and personal connection- Interaction
• Demonstrating new knowledge and recognizing achievement- Demonstration
The very nature of the model is flexible and is designed to accommodate various situations so that it can be adapted with out compromising the outcome. Whether or not the animal is part of the internal or external motivator is of no consequence. Each child is motivated by something different and need varying combinations of internal and external motivation to achieve success. What is important is to be purposeful and complete in each stage of the model according to the needs of the individual student. The connection between humans and animals is constantly evolving and changing. As in nature, it is in constant motion. A model designed to structure this interaction has to follow the same path. The same could be said for education in general, everyone learns differently at different times. What works one moment may not work the next. But we can try to slowly affect one child at a time to help learn and see that we are all connected and in motion. In the words of Leo Tolstoy: “One of the first conditions of happiness is that the link between man and nature not be broken”.
Summary of AAL Model Study
Summary of Findings for evaluation of Animal Assisted Learning Model
The results of the study show that the enhanced program design was effective in motivating first grade children to read. It is important to remember that assessing children at this age can be difficult (Paris, Paris & Carpenter, 2001). Each student is coming into first grade at different stages of readiness depending on what exposure they have had prior to this experience. Testing at the first grade level should be treated more as a baseline or a spring board from which their literacy journey will begin.
There were several outlying themes that emerged through the data but in general there were increases among each of the three areas studied including increases in reading at home and crossover of the subject into other areas. However the positive results must be held with prejudice accounting for the potential bias in the reporting. Therefore the ability to generalize the results is limited to situations with the same variable and conditions. This fact should be kept in mind while interpreting the results. Steps were taken to reduce bias by conducting a pilot on the measures, collecting data from multiple sources and coding both the quantitative and qualitative data.
Discussion
Research Question One
The primary goal of the model is motivation. In the pre and post-tests there was only a slight increase in positive response to the motivational indicators. This was to be expected considering there was a significantly high number of students responded positively on the pre-test, which is important to take into account when reviewing the results. It indicates that 97.7% of the students already enjoyed reading. In related studies, students; coming into the first grade generally have a positive attitude toward reading (Kline, 2002). If some of the children were told that we were coming to talk about reading, they might say they enjoy reading. However, what is important to note is that of the children who responded negatively to P-1, “Do you like to read?”, a large percentage of students responded positively on the post-test indicating a change in motivation over the course of the program. There were two students who switched from positive to negative. It is difficult to determine whether or not the motivation is external or internal. Active or engaged reading is grounded in intrinsic motivation. From earlier chapters, the engagement perspective says that motivations are reasons for reading (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1998). What is not known, are the exact reasons for that intrinsic motivation? According to Guthrie and Anderson (1998) these reasons can range from independent reasons such as involvement, curiosity and efficacy to more social reasons such as competition or recognition. From this study, it cannot be determined that the reason for the increase in motivation comes directly from horse contact. But like the literacy process, motivations are not static. They develop and evolve as students become more self-aware and the agent of their own engagement (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1998). This could mean that given different circumstances such as different species or shift in design could yield different results. The results do not clearly indicate that the horse alone is the motivating factor.
Question five on the pre-test shows the impact of popular culture on the favorite topics these students like to read about. Their favorite topic indicated was most influenced by what was popular on TV at the time, i.e.: Poke Man, Power Puff Girls, etc. However, the important factor to consider is the number of students who responded with either the popular name of an animal character or a type of animal. A large portion of the students stated they like to read books that are centered around animals or nature in general. This relates back to the Biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984) and supports the reasoning behind why animals make such effective motivators and why children relate to them so well. Several of the students stated horses specifically. There was a Black Stallion poster sent to each classroom before the first touch experience, which would influence the answer to that question.
The strongest evidence in support of the motivating factors of this model comes from the responses of the teachers and parents. Their statements about the reactions of the students are powerful and capture the true essence of this program. However, the potential for bias is very high. The likelihood that a parent or teacher will report a negative about their child’s reading habits at home is poor (Patton, 1990). It could be viewed as a negative reflection on them. Taking into consideration the change in behavior reported by the teacher and parent as well as looking for specific accounts help to sift through the bias. There were several themes that emerged from the teacher’s responses on both the evaluation survey and the narrative. The first major theme was that the children not only read the book in its entirety the day they received it, they also chose to reread it time after time. Teachers reported their students choosing to read their books when given the options for free time. One teacher stated “They must have read it 10 times the same day they got it”. Another teacher stated “My children sat down and read both books as soon as they received them”. Both of these statements reflect similar ideas given by the teachers. My observations of the class the day of the first touch confirm their ideas as well. I observed the children sitting down with their books flipping through the pages examining each picture and discussing what was happening in each scene. A large portion of each class read the book aloud, reading over each other. They were extremely enthusiastic as demonstrated through their immediate connection to the book. They were instantly engaged and reading. I also observed the students interacting socially with each other, which was discussed in Chapter One as a sign of a successful reading program. The parents also reiterated the same impressions as the teachers. Parents reported their children choosing to read more at night before they went to bed as demonstrated by the parent’s account of their children asking them to read. Parents also reported their children reading to younger siblings. One parent stated: “She loves to read to her little brother”. This statement can be powerful, however, it is difficult to determine that it is a change in behavior and not a habit she had before the program.
Another major theme was that of the motivating factor of the horse. This was supported through review of the qualitative data. The horse visit and interaction is key to the success of the experience. It ties back to Dewey (1928) that the physical contact with the subject being studies helps to reinforce the learning. The books being used for the program have horses a mina characters so to create a deeper connection to the text and idea of learning, use live contact with a horse. A large percentage of the students had not touched a horse before the first touch day at their school as reported by the teachers during the interview at then end of the program. The school that was site for the weekly observation has a large Hispanic population. Most of the students from this school brought a unique perspective to the experience. One teacher commented on how the horse motivated them to talk about where they came from and horses that they had been around before. Others were just overwhelmed by the entire experience. When the horses entered the room, the children would be amazed that a horse could fit in their classroom. Their enthusiasm would grow when they were told they could hug the miniature. One child even asked in Spanish, “Who’s in there?” not knowing that the miniature was real. One of the key connections made between the students and reading is through the horse. The story is brought to life by the hands-on interaction with the horse. They are then able to relate more to the book that is given to them after the first touch experience. Each teacher commented on the first touch experience in his or her narrative as being the major motivating factor of the program. According to Beyer (1991) students learn best when the content is linked to relevant prior knowledge. So you are creating that bridge between what experiences the students already have with what they are experiencing now. This can however work for and against the process. A person’s schema or prior knowledge affects the way they view and perceive the knowledge that is being presented to them while at the same time the experience is affecting their schema (Anderson in Ruddell & Ruddell, eds, 1994). All of those pre-existing attitudes, beliefs, experiences and knowledge effects how we learn and effects our motivation and desire to learn (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). So if the students had a negative experience with horses, it could effect whether or not they are motivated by them.
The subject of the book was Little Black. This is the character that the kids identified with and learned about. The integration and crossover of Little Black and horses into other academic areas is another indicator of increased motivation. The teachers were asked to integrate the curriculum, as they were able to. Some of the teachers that participated did this more than others. What is important to note, is that the students initiated some of this crossover creating their own thematic unit. While observing the classroom, the students were asked to make Lincoln log houses in honor of Lincoln’s birthday. The class decided to turn it into a stall for their horse. One of the crafts included in the activity guide for the teachers included a cut and paste horse. The students took their completed horses and pasted them to the outside of the cabin and colored it to resemble a barn. Some of the students began to engage in imaginative play with their horse and new stable. They sat at their desks pretending to walk their horse into the stall and talk about the horse. This is one example of the students carrying over the focus of horses in other areas The findings demonstrated in Anderson’s (1998) work showed that this integration or students who read texts in association with hands-on activities had higher comprehension and increases in conceptual knowledge than did students who read the same texts without the intrinsically motivating context. Anderson also reasoned that hands-on science activities would motivate students to read and, in turn, increase their conceptual learning from text. Some of the teachers would use the focus of horses to teach math. One teacher reported that because the children were so into horses, it was easy to keep them motivated to do other subjects if you talked about it in the context of horses.
The Hispanic or ESL students who participated in this study showed an increase in their English fluency skills both in reading and speaking. This variable was not directly measured. However, in the interview portion of the project, the lead teacher for the school with the largest Hispanic population commented that she saw an increase in language acquisition for her students, which she attributed to the motivating factors of this program. She commented that having confidence in speaking the language directly effects how they read. Her thought was that this program made them less intimidated to read the Little Black books aloud because of the interaction with the horse.
Research Question Two
The second research question studied was whether or not the enhanced program design increased literacy awareness. There was an increase in the number of students reporting that they had books at home as a result of the books provided gratis by the program. The intention is simply if they have access to books at home they might read them which is key to success in life long literacy. Having a strong support of literacy at home was one of the key factors (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds, 1999). For question seven, there was no significant increase in the knowledge of where to find books. This was also expected in that the most common answer (83%) recorded that the library was where books come from. This indicates a strong connection between literacy and school and would suggest that these children received more exposure to books at school than at home.
The qualitative analysis for research question number two indicated a strong correlation between the program and an increase in literacy awareness. In the review of literature, there are certain factors that attribute to success in the classroom: frequent opportunities to read, discuss and interpret text, frequent opportunities that foster motivation to read for a variety of purposes, an environment that ensures adequate resources and promoting independent reading outside the school in the home and with other community program that share in this goal (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds, 1999). In the results teachers indicated changes in behavior that relate to theses factors which are emphasized in the program. Each teacher that responded reported their children participating in some kind of behavior that demonstrates in increase in literacy skills and habits. Teachers reported their students actively seeking out books in the classroom, having a strong understanding of where books are located and reading more at home in a social context. They also reported their students reading the books multiple times. The teachers in general did integrate part of the Little Black books into their regular lesson plan. Some teachers took it much further using it more as a thematic unit for the time they were participating in the program. They created all of their lessons around it. These classes did receive more reading instruction in this context. They practiced language and reading skills using the stories and also created storyboards and story webs.
Teacher’s responses indicated strong outcomes in the area research question number two (See Table 30). The teachers repeated many of their feelings that they had stated in the open-ended portion of the survey. Teachers reported readers who traditionally struggle, keeping up with the other students. One could argue that this is due to the increase in motivation to read which directly increases their skill and comfort or confidence in reading. The largest impact on the student’s literacy skills could be attributed more to how in depth the teacher took the project. The level to which the teacher incorporated the project into their daily lessons might affect the degree of increase in literacy awareness. According to one of the teachers interviewed, the second semester of the first grade is the time the students are learning to write in complete sentences and they are encouraged to apply the new language skills they are learning at a much higher rate. The increase in skill happens with or without the program. The difference with using animal interaction is that the children are more likely to be engaged in the lessons, therefore retaining more of what they have learned.
Question Number Three
The increase in horse knowledge is the most significant increase over the three areas studied. The first question of whether they have touched a horse is significant not in the change from pre to post-test, but in the number of children who had not touched a horse before the first touch, 44.5%. It was expected that by the end of the program each child would have been able to touch a horse but the fact that almost half had not ever touched a horse before shows that there is a significant need to expose this population of children to more agricultural experiences. From listening to the children while administering the pre-test, some of the children where counting experiences of having seen a horse on a drive as touching one. The numbers could be even higher. This touch is what is so important within the program. It is giving them the opportunity to do something that they have never done before. It is making that personal connection that is so significant. However, it is difficult to ascertain whether or not it is the horse specifically and not an animal itself that is important to motivation. As reviewed earlier, Dewey was convinced that successful education is connected to personal experiences of the learner (1938). He defines growth as “the ability to learn from experience” (p.44). Ross (1988) conducted an extensive meta-analysis of literature and found that hands-on science activities aroused attention, questions and supported active learning. This is why the touch is so powerful to learning. It is not merely the exposure to animals but the physical contact; that urge to touch the oil painting in the museum or to make physical human contact between one another. Touch has the first, most direct and powerful effect on the brain's programming and re-programming activity (Stevens, 2003). According to Dewey (1938), a person’s current experience is a function of the interaction between their past experiences and the present situation.
The two other questions on the pre and post-test were a clear measure of the gain in horse knowledge. The increase in where a horse lives was more significant that the increase in what horses eat. Only half of the children knew where a horse lived, which correlates with how many had touched a horse before. The increase in knowledge of where a horse lived increased from 57.4% to 81%, which indicates that these students gained horse knowledge from participating in this program. The increase in knowledge for what a horse eats was not as dramatic. This was to be expected because 92.2% of the students answered this question correctly. There were a large number of correct answers for this question. One could deduce that the exposure to television would make this question easier to answer. What is important to note is that on the post-test the number of answers that correlate to what they learned at the second touch experience. During the hands on activities, the students made a “Horsey Salad” to demonstrate what goes into a horses diet and how it is similar to human diets. The salad included the common grass and hay but also included apples, carrots and peppermints. The answers the students recorded on the post-test reflect this. Some children answered the question with multiple items including all of the items in the salad. Some even wrote just “salad”.
The qualitative data collected supports the increase as well. Both parents and teachers reported the students using the horse vocabulary they learned in class. Several of the parents commented on how impressed they were with the knowledge their children would come home and talk about. One parent commented on how their child knew all of the breeds of horses and recalled specific detail about the horse they had seen at the farm for the second touch experience. Other parents and teachers commented on their children drawing horses and making up stories using the facts that they learned in class or at the farm. This is a common theme throughout all of the responses. The interaction with the horse not only motivated them to read but also motivated them to learn about a subject that was exciting to them. Teachers reported that students would seek out books about horses. The familiarity of the subject and the fact that they become immersed in it has this impact. What is important is that they not only learned new knowledge but that they took the initiative to learn more on their own.
The results of the study show that the enhanced program design was effective in motivating first grade children to read. It is important to remember that assessing children at this age can be difficult (Paris, Paris & Carpenter, 2001). Each student is coming into first grade at different stages of readiness depending on what exposure they have had prior to this experience. Testing at the first grade level should be treated more as a baseline or a spring board from which their literacy journey will begin.
There were several outlying themes that emerged through the data but in general there were increases among each of the three areas studied including increases in reading at home and crossover of the subject into other areas. However the positive results must be held with prejudice accounting for the potential bias in the reporting. Therefore the ability to generalize the results is limited to situations with the same variable and conditions. This fact should be kept in mind while interpreting the results. Steps were taken to reduce bias by conducting a pilot on the measures, collecting data from multiple sources and coding both the quantitative and qualitative data.
Discussion
Research Question One
The primary goal of the model is motivation. In the pre and post-tests there was only a slight increase in positive response to the motivational indicators. This was to be expected considering there was a significantly high number of students responded positively on the pre-test, which is important to take into account when reviewing the results. It indicates that 97.7% of the students already enjoyed reading. In related studies, students; coming into the first grade generally have a positive attitude toward reading (Kline, 2002). If some of the children were told that we were coming to talk about reading, they might say they enjoy reading. However, what is important to note is that of the children who responded negatively to P-1, “Do you like to read?”, a large percentage of students responded positively on the post-test indicating a change in motivation over the course of the program. There were two students who switched from positive to negative. It is difficult to determine whether or not the motivation is external or internal. Active or engaged reading is grounded in intrinsic motivation. From earlier chapters, the engagement perspective says that motivations are reasons for reading (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1998). What is not known, are the exact reasons for that intrinsic motivation? According to Guthrie and Anderson (1998) these reasons can range from independent reasons such as involvement, curiosity and efficacy to more social reasons such as competition or recognition. From this study, it cannot be determined that the reason for the increase in motivation comes directly from horse contact. But like the literacy process, motivations are not static. They develop and evolve as students become more self-aware and the agent of their own engagement (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1998). This could mean that given different circumstances such as different species or shift in design could yield different results. The results do not clearly indicate that the horse alone is the motivating factor.
Question five on the pre-test shows the impact of popular culture on the favorite topics these students like to read about. Their favorite topic indicated was most influenced by what was popular on TV at the time, i.e.: Poke Man, Power Puff Girls, etc. However, the important factor to consider is the number of students who responded with either the popular name of an animal character or a type of animal. A large portion of the students stated they like to read books that are centered around animals or nature in general. This relates back to the Biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984) and supports the reasoning behind why animals make such effective motivators and why children relate to them so well. Several of the students stated horses specifically. There was a Black Stallion poster sent to each classroom before the first touch experience, which would influence the answer to that question.
The strongest evidence in support of the motivating factors of this model comes from the responses of the teachers and parents. Their statements about the reactions of the students are powerful and capture the true essence of this program. However, the potential for bias is very high. The likelihood that a parent or teacher will report a negative about their child’s reading habits at home is poor (Patton, 1990). It could be viewed as a negative reflection on them. Taking into consideration the change in behavior reported by the teacher and parent as well as looking for specific accounts help to sift through the bias. There were several themes that emerged from the teacher’s responses on both the evaluation survey and the narrative. The first major theme was that the children not only read the book in its entirety the day they received it, they also chose to reread it time after time. Teachers reported their students choosing to read their books when given the options for free time. One teacher stated “They must have read it 10 times the same day they got it”. Another teacher stated “My children sat down and read both books as soon as they received them”. Both of these statements reflect similar ideas given by the teachers. My observations of the class the day of the first touch confirm their ideas as well. I observed the children sitting down with their books flipping through the pages examining each picture and discussing what was happening in each scene. A large portion of each class read the book aloud, reading over each other. They were extremely enthusiastic as demonstrated through their immediate connection to the book. They were instantly engaged and reading. I also observed the students interacting socially with each other, which was discussed in Chapter One as a sign of a successful reading program. The parents also reiterated the same impressions as the teachers. Parents reported their children choosing to read more at night before they went to bed as demonstrated by the parent’s account of their children asking them to read. Parents also reported their children reading to younger siblings. One parent stated: “She loves to read to her little brother”. This statement can be powerful, however, it is difficult to determine that it is a change in behavior and not a habit she had before the program.
Another major theme was that of the motivating factor of the horse. This was supported through review of the qualitative data. The horse visit and interaction is key to the success of the experience. It ties back to Dewey (1928) that the physical contact with the subject being studies helps to reinforce the learning. The books being used for the program have horses a mina characters so to create a deeper connection to the text and idea of learning, use live contact with a horse. A large percentage of the students had not touched a horse before the first touch day at their school as reported by the teachers during the interview at then end of the program. The school that was site for the weekly observation has a large Hispanic population. Most of the students from this school brought a unique perspective to the experience. One teacher commented on how the horse motivated them to talk about where they came from and horses that they had been around before. Others were just overwhelmed by the entire experience. When the horses entered the room, the children would be amazed that a horse could fit in their classroom. Their enthusiasm would grow when they were told they could hug the miniature. One child even asked in Spanish, “Who’s in there?” not knowing that the miniature was real. One of the key connections made between the students and reading is through the horse. The story is brought to life by the hands-on interaction with the horse. They are then able to relate more to the book that is given to them after the first touch experience. Each teacher commented on the first touch experience in his or her narrative as being the major motivating factor of the program. According to Beyer (1991) students learn best when the content is linked to relevant prior knowledge. So you are creating that bridge between what experiences the students already have with what they are experiencing now. This can however work for and against the process. A person’s schema or prior knowledge affects the way they view and perceive the knowledge that is being presented to them while at the same time the experience is affecting their schema (Anderson in Ruddell & Ruddell, eds, 1994). All of those pre-existing attitudes, beliefs, experiences and knowledge effects how we learn and effects our motivation and desire to learn (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). So if the students had a negative experience with horses, it could effect whether or not they are motivated by them.
The subject of the book was Little Black. This is the character that the kids identified with and learned about. The integration and crossover of Little Black and horses into other academic areas is another indicator of increased motivation. The teachers were asked to integrate the curriculum, as they were able to. Some of the teachers that participated did this more than others. What is important to note, is that the students initiated some of this crossover creating their own thematic unit. While observing the classroom, the students were asked to make Lincoln log houses in honor of Lincoln’s birthday. The class decided to turn it into a stall for their horse. One of the crafts included in the activity guide for the teachers included a cut and paste horse. The students took their completed horses and pasted them to the outside of the cabin and colored it to resemble a barn. Some of the students began to engage in imaginative play with their horse and new stable. They sat at their desks pretending to walk their horse into the stall and talk about the horse. This is one example of the students carrying over the focus of horses in other areas The findings demonstrated in Anderson’s (1998) work showed that this integration or students who read texts in association with hands-on activities had higher comprehension and increases in conceptual knowledge than did students who read the same texts without the intrinsically motivating context. Anderson also reasoned that hands-on science activities would motivate students to read and, in turn, increase their conceptual learning from text. Some of the teachers would use the focus of horses to teach math. One teacher reported that because the children were so into horses, it was easy to keep them motivated to do other subjects if you talked about it in the context of horses.
The Hispanic or ESL students who participated in this study showed an increase in their English fluency skills both in reading and speaking. This variable was not directly measured. However, in the interview portion of the project, the lead teacher for the school with the largest Hispanic population commented that she saw an increase in language acquisition for her students, which she attributed to the motivating factors of this program. She commented that having confidence in speaking the language directly effects how they read. Her thought was that this program made them less intimidated to read the Little Black books aloud because of the interaction with the horse.
Research Question Two
The second research question studied was whether or not the enhanced program design increased literacy awareness. There was an increase in the number of students reporting that they had books at home as a result of the books provided gratis by the program. The intention is simply if they have access to books at home they might read them which is key to success in life long literacy. Having a strong support of literacy at home was one of the key factors (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds, 1999). For question seven, there was no significant increase in the knowledge of where to find books. This was also expected in that the most common answer (83%) recorded that the library was where books come from. This indicates a strong connection between literacy and school and would suggest that these children received more exposure to books at school than at home.
The qualitative analysis for research question number two indicated a strong correlation between the program and an increase in literacy awareness. In the review of literature, there are certain factors that attribute to success in the classroom: frequent opportunities to read, discuss and interpret text, frequent opportunities that foster motivation to read for a variety of purposes, an environment that ensures adequate resources and promoting independent reading outside the school in the home and with other community program that share in this goal (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds, 1999). In the results teachers indicated changes in behavior that relate to theses factors which are emphasized in the program. Each teacher that responded reported their children participating in some kind of behavior that demonstrates in increase in literacy skills and habits. Teachers reported their students actively seeking out books in the classroom, having a strong understanding of where books are located and reading more at home in a social context. They also reported their students reading the books multiple times. The teachers in general did integrate part of the Little Black books into their regular lesson plan. Some teachers took it much further using it more as a thematic unit for the time they were participating in the program. They created all of their lessons around it. These classes did receive more reading instruction in this context. They practiced language and reading skills using the stories and also created storyboards and story webs.
Teacher’s responses indicated strong outcomes in the area research question number two (See Table 30). The teachers repeated many of their feelings that they had stated in the open-ended portion of the survey. Teachers reported readers who traditionally struggle, keeping up with the other students. One could argue that this is due to the increase in motivation to read which directly increases their skill and comfort or confidence in reading. The largest impact on the student’s literacy skills could be attributed more to how in depth the teacher took the project. The level to which the teacher incorporated the project into their daily lessons might affect the degree of increase in literacy awareness. According to one of the teachers interviewed, the second semester of the first grade is the time the students are learning to write in complete sentences and they are encouraged to apply the new language skills they are learning at a much higher rate. The increase in skill happens with or without the program. The difference with using animal interaction is that the children are more likely to be engaged in the lessons, therefore retaining more of what they have learned.
Question Number Three
The increase in horse knowledge is the most significant increase over the three areas studied. The first question of whether they have touched a horse is significant not in the change from pre to post-test, but in the number of children who had not touched a horse before the first touch, 44.5%. It was expected that by the end of the program each child would have been able to touch a horse but the fact that almost half had not ever touched a horse before shows that there is a significant need to expose this population of children to more agricultural experiences. From listening to the children while administering the pre-test, some of the children where counting experiences of having seen a horse on a drive as touching one. The numbers could be even higher. This touch is what is so important within the program. It is giving them the opportunity to do something that they have never done before. It is making that personal connection that is so significant. However, it is difficult to ascertain whether or not it is the horse specifically and not an animal itself that is important to motivation. As reviewed earlier, Dewey was convinced that successful education is connected to personal experiences of the learner (1938). He defines growth as “the ability to learn from experience” (p.44). Ross (1988) conducted an extensive meta-analysis of literature and found that hands-on science activities aroused attention, questions and supported active learning. This is why the touch is so powerful to learning. It is not merely the exposure to animals but the physical contact; that urge to touch the oil painting in the museum or to make physical human contact between one another. Touch has the first, most direct and powerful effect on the brain's programming and re-programming activity (Stevens, 2003). According to Dewey (1938), a person’s current experience is a function of the interaction between their past experiences and the present situation.
The two other questions on the pre and post-test were a clear measure of the gain in horse knowledge. The increase in where a horse lives was more significant that the increase in what horses eat. Only half of the children knew where a horse lived, which correlates with how many had touched a horse before. The increase in knowledge of where a horse lived increased from 57.4% to 81%, which indicates that these students gained horse knowledge from participating in this program. The increase in knowledge for what a horse eats was not as dramatic. This was to be expected because 92.2% of the students answered this question correctly. There were a large number of correct answers for this question. One could deduce that the exposure to television would make this question easier to answer. What is important to note is that on the post-test the number of answers that correlate to what they learned at the second touch experience. During the hands on activities, the students made a “Horsey Salad” to demonstrate what goes into a horses diet and how it is similar to human diets. The salad included the common grass and hay but also included apples, carrots and peppermints. The answers the students recorded on the post-test reflect this. Some children answered the question with multiple items including all of the items in the salad. Some even wrote just “salad”.
The qualitative data collected supports the increase as well. Both parents and teachers reported the students using the horse vocabulary they learned in class. Several of the parents commented on how impressed they were with the knowledge their children would come home and talk about. One parent commented on how their child knew all of the breeds of horses and recalled specific detail about the horse they had seen at the farm for the second touch experience. Other parents and teachers commented on their children drawing horses and making up stories using the facts that they learned in class or at the farm. This is a common theme throughout all of the responses. The interaction with the horse not only motivated them to read but also motivated them to learn about a subject that was exciting to them. Teachers reported that students would seek out books about horses. The familiarity of the subject and the fact that they become immersed in it has this impact. What is important is that they not only learned new knowledge but that they took the initiative to learn more on their own.
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