Animal Assisted Learning Model

Introduction

While we know that there is not one effective instruction strategy that works all the time with every student, however we can combine critical components of effective reading programs with the results of this project into one model. The focus of this model is on the motivation of the reader rather than the skill itself. The premise being if one can instill a positive attitude about something at a young age, then the student will be more likely to maintain that same attitude later in life (McKenna, 2001). In the context of literacy, if a student’s primary experiences with literacy are positive, they will carry that attitude on through the process and be more likely to succeed and continue reading throughout their life. There is a great deal of research reporting what are the best strategies and practices in education. However, there are several strategies that continue to lead to success in literacy: multiple exposures to written text (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998), frequent opportunities that foster motivation to read for a variety of purposes (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998), promoting independent reading outside the school in the home and with other community programs that share in this goal (Burns et al., 1999), making personal connections with the text, (Halliday, 1994), and clear integration of literacy and content (Pressley et al., 1998). All of these strategies have been reviewed in previous chapters.
The program in this study used animals as a way to motivate children to read. The use of the animal not only acted as a motivator but also helped to create a physical connection to the text which was one of the effective strategies mentioned earlier. We know that the animals in this instance were a powerful tool in the success of the program but in what other areas could the animal play a role. Creating a model offers structure and frame for a construct such as learning. The animal assisted learning model is an attempt to create a framework from which interactive experiences could be created. Just as a positive experience shapes our attitude and perception for life so can a negative one. Also taken into consideration for this model is flexibility. The hope is that the model can transcend out of education and into other areas where animal interaction can be of benefit such as therapeutic interventions. It is also designed to be flexible within different situations without sacrificing the quality of the experience.
The model is broken down into five components: introduction, interaction, integration, interaction and demonstration.

Each component integrates the effective strategies mentioned above: motivation, access, integration of text, reading aloud and creating joy and enthusiasm through demonstration and recognition. It is built along a continuum in that each component builds upon the previous and affects the following. Any phase can be revisited sliding up and down the continuum depending on the needs of the audience. The theoretical framework upon which this model is developed is connected cyclically. Each theory supports a crucial component of the model.

Introduction Phase
The introduction phase incorporates two important principles: accessing A Priori or prior knowledge (Kujawa & Huske, 1995), and sparking curiosity (Dewey, 1963). When teachers connect new information and concepts to A Priori knowledge, they activate the student’s interest and spark their curiosity therefore instilling a sense of purpose to the instruction (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). Dewey (1963) postulated that one could inspire a sense of curiosity if the teachings were linked cumulatively to one another. According to Beyer (1991) students learn best when the content is linked to relevant prior knowledge. Prior knowledge acts as a filter or window through which we view and process new information (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). A person’s past experience determines the way they view and perceive the knowledge that is being presented to them while at the same time the current experience shapes the way they will perceive new ones. (Anderson in Ruddell & Ruddell, eds., 1994). All of those preexisting attitudes, beliefs, experiences and knowledge effects how we learn and effects our motivation and desire to learn (Kujawa & Huske, 1995). A study by Bransford and McCarrell (1974) tried to explain how prior knowledge or schema effected comprehension. Through analysis of the subjects’ interpretation of the responses, they were able to determine that making a connection to the text was crucial for comprehension. The animal is used as the means to connect to the text. Then making physical contact with nature can deepen the connection (Dewey, 1938). Another important consideration for creating an effective instructional model is to take into account learning styles. In 1983, Gardener, one of the leaders in the area of learning proposed that there are seven different types of learners or intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical, spatial, bodily or kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. As learners, Gardener (1999) says that we employ more than one of the seven but tend to dominate towards one. As a result of more speculation and research regarding biophilia (Kellert & Wilson, 1993), Gardener proposed an eighth intelligence in 1999, the Naturalistic Intelligence. This intelligence involves the ability to understand and work effectively in the natural world. Gardner’s work has brought even more attention to the importance of a physical connection to the natural world and how effective this initial contact can be and can connect with children who otherwise would not.
The first phase is also about generating a personal interest through that connection. Studies have shown a high correlation between personal interest and reading comprehension (Schiefele, 1992). If the students have a personal interest or can make a personal connection to the text, they are more likely to recall the information. Guthrie and Knowles (2001) also contend tat one’s attitude toward a particular object or subject affects their ability to connect with the material; “Attitudes are affective responses that accompany a behavior of reading initiated by a motivational state” (p.20). McKenna, Kear and Ellsworth (1995) discovered that a child’s positive attitude toward reading decreased as they progressed through elementary school in a survey of 18,000 students. This attitude was highly related to ability. Low achievers had a more negative attitude as they progressed to the sixth grade. As motivation declines, without promotional activities, children are less likely to read. (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001)

Interaction Phase
The two interaction components of this model are based upon a child’s attraction to nature and the ability to use this attraction and curiosity to motivate students (Guthrie, 1983). The first interaction is critical to the model. It is the step that generates the enthusiasm and motivation. It is the beginning of the experience for that student, the hook so to speak. It is the physical contact with the animal that enhances a human’s attraction to nature and creates an atmosphere where children can learn. The fourth phase, which is a second interaction, is meant to reinforce the motivation and knowledge gained. It is a bridge between the introduction and the demonstration.
The interaction phase exploits our natural attraction to living things. Biophilia (Wilson, 1984) is the basis for the use of the animals as motivators and the bridge between the first and second phase of the model. Gardener (1999) introduced the eighth addition to his multiple intelligences list. The “Naturalistic Intelligence” is displayed by children who identify with the laws of nature and classification. The use of live animals would help to reach this pocket of children who would otherwise not make that crucial connection to the lesson. By playing to their attraction to nature, the teacher can increase their motivation to participate actively in the lesson.
The interaction phase should be social in nature. Maslow (1954) published “Motivation and Personality,” which introduced his theory about how people satisfy their various needs. Based on his observations as a humanistic psychologist, he found a general pattern of needs that people would recognize and try to satisfy in generally the same sequence. One of the basic needs listed towards the bottom of his hierarchy is the need for social interaction and belongingness (Maslow, 1954). This social need can be obtained through interaction with animals. A review of the Biophilia Hypothesis by Peter Kahn (1997) suggests the attraction may have something to do with recognition of the increased likelihood of finding food, safety, and security in nature (Kahn, 1997). In Gerald Lamb’s 1972 study of a group of disabled children and a field trip to the zoo, it was concluded that the interaction with the animals increased language skills, social interaction and confidence. This study also supports the need for social interaction as a positive addition to an effective learning model.
An additional benefit to the use of animals is opportunity for lessons in stewardship. In 1996 Kellert identified nine values placed on life. The fifth and ninth value reference a human’s emotional and moral response to nature. Children of school age, six and up, are ready and open to the learning experience. Kellert (1996) determined that between the ages of six and nine, children were more aware of animals as having interests and feelings and they might suffer pain and distress. The nine to twelve year old age group demonstrated the highest increase in their knowledge of their factual understanding as well as a moralistic and conservationists view of the natural world. The results of this study have a direct impact on the appropriate use of animals in the classroom which should be discussed during the first interaction to ensure a quality and safe experience for both the animal and student. The research of Kellert and Wilson (1993) concluded that animals brought into a human context are powerful reinforcements of human attention and behavior. When the child is given the opportunity to interact with the animal as well as observe it, there are positive changes to behavior; human speech, and nonverbal expression of emotion.
Pets play a vital role in the development of children. (Robin et al.,1983) as they help to alleviate stress which is beneficial in both an education and therapeutic setting. Because children learn primarily through direct contact with their environment, interaction with an animal can provide sensory input that cannot be duplicated by another source (Blue, 1986). According to the research of Robin et al, pet animals can be very important to youth and can play a special role in the lives of disturbed and delinquent youth. The pet met their need for acceptance and provided unconditional love, as well as emotional support. Some pets even acted as protectors of children in abusive homes and acted as a substitute for family in cases where the child was removed from the home. The animal helps to create a safe and relaxed atmosphere which makes them more receptive to learning (Thornton, 2000). Merely being in the presence of an animal can lead to a decrease in blood pressure (Katcher, Friedmann, Beck, & Lynch, 1983). Thornton (2000) found that teachers reported their students felt less embarrassed and less tense while reading aloud in the presence of a dog. They felt as though they were reading aloud to someone who would not judge them if they made a mistake and were comfortable to explore their skill as a reader. Interacting with an animal generates physiological responses in our body. Cain & Cain (1991) state two characteristics of the optimal state of mind for meaningful learning: a relaxed nervous system and sense of safety and security and student self-motivation, which is critical to the expansion of knowledge. In Rud and Beck’s 1996 study, teachers reported that animals in their classroom added to the overall psychological wellbeing of the students. They noted a decrease in classroom stress and an increase in class participation.
The enhanced program design studied in this project used horses specifically for the motivation of students to read. Little research on the use of horses in educational studies has been conducted but as therapeutic riding as an educational intervention becomes more widely accepted, more research will surface. One study of a Therapeutic Equestrian program found that horses used as educational tools can be classroom motivators and themes for academic activities in small appropriate groups. Results of their study included significant physical benefits, the emergence of communication from a withdrawn non-verbal student, and increased confidence levels in the students (Bieber, 1983). Even though this is not a realistic model for all schools, it is a clear example of using an animal as not only a motivator in the classroom but also a treatment modality for the physical issues associated with disabilities in special education classrooms.
Studying pets fosters a child’s natural sense of curiosity about their environment (Blue, 1986). If one takes a broad view of classroom curriculum in any subject especially at younger grade levels, animals are often the subject or the theme. This seems to help make a connection with the children as well as provide a motivator for learning the subject matter. There is also a high frequency of animals used as the theme for computer based interactive lessons. Dewey (1938) discusses this phenomenon of curiosity related to learning. He surmised that if you can peak this curiosity by connecting children with nature than they will be more apt to learn and retain what they are taught.

Integration Phase
The third component of the Animal Assisted Learning model is Integration. The concept of integrating the subject matter employs two important factors: connecting the material creating in a balanced or holistic approach, and building upon prior knowledge by constructing new knowledge. Research in education has come to one great understanding; there is no one right way to teach (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, eds 1999). Creating a model that pulls from multiple strategies sometimes referred to as balanced instruction, is more successful at engaging students (Pressley, et al, 1998). Many researchers have observed that student engagement can be greater and learning heightened when reading and writing are integrated with content-area instruction (e.g., Applebee, 1996; Barth & Mitchell, 1992). A study by Pressley, et al (1998) focusing on the nature of effective first grade literacy instruction, found the most consistent factor for effective classrooms was they all had a greater intent to connect reading and writing skills and content areas. By combining the attention capturing value of an animal with regular classroom instruction, the students will be more likely to be engaged in the learning process. An example would be to pair the subject matter of that animal such as a dog with reading content that included a dog as a character or information about the dog. The specie is not what is important but rather the connections made across the curriculum and that the children are engaged in the lessons.
Monzo & Rueda (2001) describe engagement with academic tasks as the observable manifestation of achievement motivation, identified by students' on-task behavior, lack of disruptions during lessons, or completion of activities. More recently, cognitive-oriented researchers argue that an engaged reader is one who is motivated, knowledgeable, strategic, and socially interactive (Gambrell, 1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). This requires that the learner be actively thinking about the reading task. This model takes on a constructivist perspective of engagement. From this approach, the engagement is a process that the active learner uses to connect personal prior knowledge and previous experiences to new ideas in order to construct new knowledge and build upon what they already know (McCombs, 1996).
Motivation is not a static concept (Guthrie & Anderson, 1994). The purpose this phase is to continue the motivation created during the first interaction and carry the momentum while continuing to build upon it until the end. Guthrie and Knowles (2001) identify four aspects of motivation related to reading: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, interest and attitude. Specifically, intrinsic motivation refers to the students desire to be engaged in reading for its own sake rather than for a reward. Extrinsic motivation refers to the external rewards as goals for reading such as grades (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001). In general, students display both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Guthrie, & Anderson, 1994). Students who display traits for intrinsic motivation are more likely to achieve success in reading because of their curiosity in learning (Wigfield, Eccles & Rodriguez, 1998 and Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). So this implies two important things: we must create a situation that fosters intrinsic motivation, and we must provide and atmosphere that fosters a positive attitude toward reading. This model reinforces these two concepts in each phase continuing to build motivation from one experience to the next through generating personal interest and personal connection through the live animal contact (Schiefele, 1992) and sparking curiosity (Dewey, 1938) which manifests itself motivation and a positive attitude which lead to success (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001).
Ross (1988) confirmed these results in a meta-analysis of literature. He describes the interaction as a “motivating context for text-based learning” (p. 411). He found that hands-on science activities aroused attention and promoted active learning (Guthrie & Wigfiled, 2000, p.411). Guthrie et al. (1998) found that reading instruction when embedded within hands-on science curriculum increased reading comprehension, strategy use, and problem solving in third and fifth graders and labeled it as intrinsically motivating. In 1992 Romance and Vitale studied an integrated curriculum that combined reading and hands-on activities in science. In a quasi-experimental comparison, students in the integrated curriculum scored higher on measures of reading achievement and science knowledge than did students pursuing a traditional form of instruction. Anderson (1998) attempted to explain this phenomenon. He reasoned that hands-on science activities would motivate students to read and, in turn, increase their conceptual learning from text. These findings demonstrated that students who read texts in association with hands-on activities had higher comprehension and increases in conceptual knowledge than did students who read the same texts without the intrinsically motivating context. In addition to Anderson’s work, Guthrie et al conducted a yearlong intervention study and showed that reading engagement initially learned with intrinsically motivating activities in one knowledge domain could be transferred to a new knowledge domain (Guthrie, Anderson, Alao, & Rinehart, 1999).
It is the interest of the animal assisted learning model that children engage in reading because they want to, because of a hunger for imagination and curiosity sparked by their participation in the program. Most researchers and educators would agree that motivation "is a very important, if not the most important factor in language learning" (Van Lier, 1998) without which even 'gifted' individuals cannot accomplish long-term goals, regardless of the curricula or instructor

Interaction Phase II
This model strives to create a positive pattern and attitude that will continue throughout the child’s life whether it be for reading or the instilling of an empathetic attitude toward nature. The second interaction phase is to reinforce the motivation created in the beginning and to reinforce the connection to the curriculum. It helps to support intrinsic motivation in the child. The importance of real world interaction which was discussed earlier needs to continue long after the experience is over. There must be support inside and outside of school in order for this to occur (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). This means promotion of reading at home and social interaction in the form of discussions of the book in and out of class. In a section of a paper written by John Guthrie found in the Handbook of Reading Research (Kamil, et al, 2000), he details how real life situations used in the classroom can influence intrinsic motivation. The Interaction 1, Interaction 2 and Demonstration portion of the model are deeply rooted in this concept. It refers to learners’ sensory and personal experiences.
“The main role of real-world interaction is to evoke intrinsically motivated behaviors. Students are alert, attentive, and excited in the presence of a real world object such as a live reptile, …... They enjoy looking, asking questions, and discussing what they see” (Guthrie, 2000, p. 403).
Guthrie (2000) connects the work of researchers related to hands on science learning to the positive effects of live animal interaction and the generation of life long interest. Providing a second chance for the students to interact with the animal serves to reinforce that motivation and to spark curiosity which empowers the learner to seek more information after the experience has ended. Combining the intrinsic motivation with support outside of the classroom ensures a greater likelihood for success.


Demonstration Phase
In order to bring the experience full circle, it is important to provide opportunity to students to demonstrate the knowledge they have gained (Downing, 2000). The purpose is not to highlight one child over another; it is a chance to recognize that everyone has achieved something. In psychology it might be called closure or termination (Yalom, 1995). Yalom (1995) says that it is more than just an end but an integral part of the process. Bringing a formal end to one stage helps to be more accepting of new experiences and increases their self confidence (Driscoll, 1994). The celebration and recognition of achievement can act as an external motivator but the terminating experience can be intrinsically motivating in that it inspires one to go forth and seek out new knowledge (Guthrie & Knowles, 2001).




Summary

Based on the findings of this thesis and a review or successful educational programs, it was determined that the conclusions could be merged into one theoretical model. This model can offer consistency in structure of interactions between humans and animals. The Animal Assisted Learning model uses structured interaction with an animal to motivate children by:
• Capturing attention by accessing prior knowledge- Introduction
• Creating a personal connection to the text- Interaction
• Integrating the subject of the text into all areas of classroom study to build upon prior knowledge- Integration
• Reinforcing new knowledge and personal connection- Interaction
• Demonstrating new knowledge and recognizing achievement- Demonstration

The very nature of the model is flexible and is designed to accommodate various situations so that it can be adapted with out compromising the outcome. Whether or not the animal is part of the internal or external motivator is of no consequence. Each child is motivated by something different and need varying combinations of internal and external motivation to achieve success. What is important is to be purposeful and complete in each stage of the model according to the needs of the individual student. The connection between humans and animals is constantly evolving and changing. As in nature, it is in constant motion. A model designed to structure this interaction has to follow the same path. The same could be said for education in general, everyone learns differently at different times. What works one moment may not work the next. But we can try to slowly affect one child at a time to help learn and see that we are all connected and in motion. In the words of Leo Tolstoy: “One of the first conditions of happiness is that the link between man and nature not be broken”.